Category: rabbits

Arthritis

Posted on July 30, 2018 by vetstream - miscellaneous-health-problems-rabbits, rabbits

Arthritis is a well-known, documented condition affecting humans, cats and dogs. R rabbits can often be affected too, especially as they get older, and sometimes this can go un-noticed.

Arthritis is a general term given to the inflammation of a joint or joints, and any joint within the body can be affected. Arthritis isn’t a single disease, but rather a group of abnormalities that can have different causes, all of which lead to inflammation of the joints. Arthritis is a progressive condition and can cause significant pain and discomfort.

What causes arthritis?

Arthritis can occur naturally as your rabbit ages; however rabbits are particularly susceptible to arthritis if the joints are put under extra strain, i.e. large breeds of rabbit, fat/obese rabbits or those with missing limbs. These extra stresses cause the joints to wear more quickly than they would do under normal circumstances. Arthritis due to injury of the joint earlier in life is also common. These conditions are commonly referred to as osteoarthritis.

Other causes include bacterial infections causing septic arthritis. This can be caused by penetrating injuries where bacteria are introduced to the joint capsule leading to inflammation. This type of arthritis can occur at any age and in any breed of rabbit. If a rabbit contracts an infection, as a results of trauma, dental disease or upper respiratory tract infection, there might be an increased risk of bacteria migrating to the joint, causing septic arthritis.

Rheumatoid arthritisis another type of arthritis caused by an over-reaction of the immune system; the immune system mistakes the body’s own protein for bacteria and attacks it leading to inflammation within the joints. Rheumatoid arthritis does not seem to occur spontaneously in domestic rabbits.

What symptoms may my rabbit show?

As your rabbit ages, you may notice your rabbit slowing down and isnt as active as it used to be. This can be a normal sign of aging, and may creep up very slowly, making recognising and diagnosing arthritis quite difficult on clinical signs alone.

You may notice that your rabbit has difficulty getting in and out of the litter tray, getting up or hopping around. Your rabbit may struggle to move around, present an abnormal gait or have difficulty grooming, leading to an unkempt coat or a mucky bottom. Your rabbit may not be able to scratch its ears, so excess amounts of earwax may accumulate. Urine scalding may develop in some cases.

Sometimes subtle behavioural changes, such as being quieter than usual or aggressive when handled, are also an indication of discomfort or pain. Less commonly, reduced appetite may also be seen. If you notice any of these signs, you should consider taking your rabbit to the vet as they may all indicate the onset of arthritis.

How is arthritis diagnosed?

our vet will give your rabbit a full clinical examination. Radiographs will then confirm or rule out the presence of arthritis. On x-ray, arthritis joints will show a haze or fuzziness around the joint, which is diagnostic of the condition. Other more sophisticated diagnostic imaging techniques, including ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and arthroscopy, can also be used for a more accurate diagnosis. All these techniques can prove very useful to visualize the degree of bone and joint destruction.

Your rabbit will probably require sedation or general anaesthesia in order to achieve good enough images to be diagnostic.

Your vet may also do a blood test, urine test, or take a sample of joint fluid (joint aspirate) to test in the lab to rule out any underlying problems.

Can my rabbit be treated?

It is possible to treat arthritis in rabbits in order to try and ease some of the discomfort and difficulties that the rabbit may be experiencing, but it is not currently possible to cure the problem completely.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are commonly used in rabbits to reduce inflammation around the joints and to ease the discomfort that is usually present with the condition. Your vet may want to check your rabbit’s liver and kidney function to safely prescribe these medications, especially if long-term treatment is required.

Septic arthritis can be resolved if it caught and treated early enough.

There has been controversy regarding supplementation of joint problems in both humans and animals; however there are some rabbit foods that now contain added glucosamine, which is thought to benefit animals with arthritis and help with joint mobility.

Gentle massage over the muscle of the affected area can help decrease the degree of muscle tightness. Gently flexing and extending the affected joint for a few minutes several times daily may help as well, but always remember that physical therapy may be detrimental in cases of trauma. Always follow your vet’s recommendation in these cases and be careful and gentle when handling your rabbit.

Acupuncture has also been reported to help in some cases by reducing the amount of pain medication used, and providing relief for many patients.

What measures can I take to help my rabbit?

Ensure that you do not allow your rabbit to become overweight, and encourage them to exercise regularly to build up muscle mass.

If you think your rabbit may be developing arthritis (symptoms can be attributed to other conditions), then take your rabbit to see your vet as soon as possible.

If your rabbit is diagnosed with arthritis then keeping the hair clipped around the perineum and applying a barrier cream will help with any urine scalding, deep and soft bedding to prevent pressure sores is also recommended.

Keep your rabbit on a soft absorbent bedding to prevent soiling and further complications.

Your rabbits litter tray will need to have a low entrance if it is having difficulty hopping in and out, and if your rabbit has a ramp in their hutch/run or stairs, then you may need to make other arrangements as they may struggle to use these.

Some rabbits may not be able to reach their caecothrophes, so it is a good idea to collect them and place them in, or near to, their food area as most rabbits will eat them on their own.

Cerebrospinal nematodiasis

Posted on July 30, 2018 by vetstream - gastrointestinal-conditions-rabbits, rabbits

Cerebrospinal nematodiasis is an invasion of the central nervous system by nematode (roundworm) larvae and a cause of neurological disease in rabbits that have access to the outdoors. Infected rabbits may show a variety of clinical signs. These can also be attributed to many other disease processes.

How is cerebrospinal nematodiasis contracted?

Cerebrospinal nematodiasis occurs when rabbit ingest material, e.g. grass, that is contaminated with faeces containing the eggs from Toxacara canis (canine roundworm) or Baylisascaris spp eggs.

When the eggs are ingested they migrate through the central nervous system and damage surrounding tissues, causing encephalomalacia, a degenerative disease of the brain which causes softening of brain tissues. The eggs can remain dormant in the environment for months or years at a time before being ingested.

What are the signs of cerebrospinal nematodiasis?

Signs can vary and may have a slow onset (chronic) or be acute (have a sudden onset). The signs will vary depending on the level of infection, the damage done and the route which the larval migration takes.

Clinical signs may include:

behavioural changes
torticollis (head tilt)
circling
seizures
vertical nystagmus (eye flicking/twitching)
swaying
falling over
paralysis
ataxia (loss of co-ordination).

There seems to be no evidence that sex, breed or age of the rabbit makes it more predisposed to the effects of the parasite.

How is it diagnosed?

Diagnosis is made on blood sampling. Toxoplasma serology and examination of the rabbit’s faeces are the normal way that a diagnosis is made. Samples for these tests will normally have to be sent to an external laboratory.

Can it be treated?

Anti-parasitic medications, such as albendazole or fenbendazole, together with anti-inflammatory medications, to help inflammation is the usual treatment of choice.

Rabbits that are not eating well will also require supportive feeding, intravenous fluids and prokinetic (improves gastrointestinal motility) medication to ensure they do not go into gastrointestinal stasis.

The prognosis for successful recovery is poor, although some rabbits may have a resolution of clinical signs. Treatment can be expensive and on-going so cost considerations should be discussed with your vet.

What else should I know?

Rabbits act as the end host for the parasite and do not shed the parasite in their faeces. However, if the rabbit contracted the parasite from an infected host in an environment shared by humans, then there is a risk that humans could contract the infection from a similar means, although not directly from the rabbit. Therefore, cerebrospinal nematodiasis is classed as a zoonotic risk to humans.

If an infected rabbit is eaten after death, the risk to predators consuming the rabbit (potentially humans), and other vertebrate predators who may therefore contract and spread the infection, is a serious risk.

Dental disease in your rabbit

Posted on July 30, 2018 by vetstream - dental-disease-rabbits, rabbits

Rabbit’s teeth are open-rooted, meaning that they continuously erupt and grow throughout its life. If a rabbit has congenital or acquired dental disease, then the teeth may overgrow or grow distorted, which can cause life-long problems. This factsheet aims to discuss the common causes and treatments for dental disease in rabbits.

How many teeth do rabbits have?

Rabbits have four upper incisors and two lower incisors which are used to slice and cut food into smaller pieces that are then transported by the tongue to the premolars and molars for chewing. Rabbits also have “peg teeth”, which are the small teeth that sit directly behind the upper incisors. Unlike dogs and cats, rabbits do not have any canines, but have a gap where the canines would be, called a diastema.

The upper jaw has six cheek teeth, consisting of three premolars and three molars on each side. The lower jaw has ten teeth, consisting of two premolars and three molars on each side. It is not possible to distinguish between premolars and molars and they form a row of teeth which are all used for grinding.

The incisors grow approximately 2-3 mm per week with the cheek teeth grow approximately 2-3 mm per month. Growth rate and dental wear is variable; dental wear is affected by the abrasive nature of the diet and duration of grazing.

How do rabbit's teeth function?

Wild rabbits live on a grass-based diet, which is naturally abrasive. It is this constant abrasive chewing action that allows wearing down of the constantly growing teeth, and maintains normal occlusion.

Domestic rabbit’s teeth act in exactly the same way, however, their diets differ, as does the variety of breeds and head shapes. Wild rabbits have slim, long heads, whereas many breeds of domestic rabbits are brachycephalic, which means they have a short-nosed face; this can affect proper alignment of the teeth in the mouth.

If the rate of eruption of the teeth is not balanced by correct attrition, as can happen if the diet is not appropriate, e.g. rabbits fed only a pelleted diet, then dental disease may result.

What can go wrong?

There are several things that can go wrong with your rabbit’s teeth. Firstly, dental disease can be congenital, this means that rabbits that are bred from parents who have dental problems, or known problems in the breeding line, and are likely to inherit the problem themselves.

Congenital malocclusion is normally apparent by the age of 9-18 months and normally require life-long treatment in order to keep the rabbit comfortable and eating normally. Incorrect or poor diet however, is the most common cause of malocclusion. Rabbits need a high fiber, abrasive diet in order to guarantee adequate gut function and dental wear. If fed a diet low in abrasive particles that is consumed rapidly, their teeth will quickly become overgrown.

A rabbit’s diet should consist of at least 70% grass/good quality hay, which should always be available. Most rabbits will consume their body weight in hay each day. A variety of fresh greens and vegetables (28% of the diet) should be fed daily (one handful morning and evening). A small amount (only 2% of the diet) of good quality extruded nugget-type commercial pellet should be fed to prevent selective feeding to ensure provision of the necessary vitamins, minerals and proteins. This is the main way to prevent dental disease from occurring.

Trauma is another potential trigger for dental disease. Rabbits that are dropped and bang their mouth or may pull on the wire of their hutch/enclosure are prone to traumatic dental disease. Any factor that alters the position of the teeth may, in fact, result in their elongation and malocclusion. This type of malocclusion can sometimes be cured through burring the teeth (normally the incisors) at regular intervals, with appropriate instruments, until they grow correctly again. This may take several months, and often, despite this repeated treatment, it is not possible to solve the problem completely.

What is selective feeding?

Selective feeding is a big problem with rabbits and many owners are still unaware of it.

Rabbits that are housed indoors and fed mainly on mixed cereal food, with limited access to vegetables or grass, will pick only the pieces that they like most, leaving the rest of it.

It is therefore imperative that if you feed a muesli type dried food you do not re-fill your rabbits bowl up until all the food has gone, and consider swapping your rabbit onto an extruded nugget type food to prevent selective feeding.

Wild rabbits that have unrestricted access to grazing and browsing, or even pet rabbits that consume a varied diet based on hay, grass and vegetables, are less likely to develop dental disease, when compared to those rabbtis that are allowed to selectively feed on their low fiber mixed cereal ration.

What are the signs of dental disease?

Rabbits may just suffer from malocclusion of the incisor teeth, in which case burring the teeth as and when is necessary, in many cases, is sufficient to manage the problem. Never allow anyone to clip your rabbit’s teeth with nail clippers or any other type of clipper. The pressure that is put onto the tooth during clipping is likely to crack and split the tooth down to the root; this can potentially result in a tooth root infection, which can be very difficult to treat.

Overgrown incisors are a hindrance to many rabbits and, in the majority of cases, they are better off having them surgically removed. Rabbits adapt perfectly well to having no incisors, as they begin to use their lips to hold and pick up their food. Consult your vet if you are considering having this done.

Molar and premolar malocclusion is more complicated. Often a rabbit may begin with incisor malocclusion and, as the jaw is pushed out of alignment, the molars and premolars will overgrow as a consequence.

Common clinical signs in cases of dental disease include reduced appetite (the rabbit goes off certain foods, sometimes hard foods, sometimes softer ones), may salivate profusely and have a wet chin, or matted fur, at the front paws where they have been wiping their mouth. Weight loss may occur if the problem develops slowly and the rabbit may become depressed.

Discharge from the eyes may be evident when elongation of the upper tooth roots is responsible for impinging on and blocking the nasolacrimal ducts. The upper tooth roots can, in severe cases, even grow into the eye sockets. If you feel along your rabbits lower jaw you may fee bumps due to teeth overgrowing into the bone.

How will my vet diagnose dental disease?

Radiography of the skull is recommended in any case of suspected dental disease, in order to assess the status of all the tooth roots which can be overgrown or distorted. The x-ray will also allow assessment of bone involvement and will show how extensive the problem is. The nasolacrimal ducts can also be evaluated at the same time.

Can my rabbit be treated?

Rabbits with dental disease affecting the cheek teeth require general anaesthesia, often on a regular basis, in order to appropriately assess the teeth, remove any sharps edges and restore a more normal occlusal plane. This may need repeating as often as monthly for the rest of the rabbit’s life, so it is also a serious financial commitment for the owner. The welfare of the rabbit has to be, in any of these situations, of primary concern.

In more advanced cases surgery may be necessary to remove cheek teeth if they are not stable in their socket, or if they are infected. Your rabbit may be referred to a more specialised ‘rabbit vet’ for this type of surgery.

What about abscesses?

Facial abscesses are common in rabbits and may be associated with bony structures in the skull. Abscesses often carry a poor prognosis since it can be impossible to surgically remove and completely clear the infection. Systemic antibiotics are often ineffective, especially if not combined with surgery, in reaching the site of infection due to the poor blood supply.

Surgery is the only available option in many of these cases. Beads containing antibiotics can be implanted into the infected site during the surgical procedure which slowly release antibiotics directly to the abscess over a period of time. Many vets also apply manuka honey locally over the abscess site following a surgical procedure, this is due to the good antibacterial properties of this natural product.

If, with appropriate treatment, your rabbit is pain free or its pain can be managed successfully, and has a good quality of life, they will live perfectly happily for many months or years, however, if the rabbit’s quality of life, at any point, cannot be maintained, then euthanasia is the kindest option.

Conclusion

Dental disease in rabbits is a complicated and often preventable problem. Always ensure you feed your rabbit a good diet to try and prevent problems arising. If you are concerned about your rabbit’s teeth, consult your vet as soon as possible.

Cancer in your rabbit

Posted on July 30, 2018 by vetstream - caring for your rabbit, rabbits

Sadly, from time to time, rabbits can be affected by cancer, which can take many different forms. Some cancers are more common than others and this factsheet will aim to look at those more commonly seen in pet rabbits.

What is cancer?

Cancer is a general term used for a class of diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control and are able to invade other tissues. Cancer cells can spread to other parts of the body through the blood and lymph systems destroying other healthy tissues in a process called metastasis.

There are many types of cancers, some more common than others. Most cancers are named after the organ in which they originate or type of cell that is initially affected. When the damaged cells start dividing uncontrollably they can form lumps or masses called tumours which can then interfere with the function of organs, or they can release substances, e.g. hormones, that can alter the way the body functions.

Symptoms related to cancer can be quite variable depending on where the cancer is located, if and where it has spread, and how big it is.

What types of cancer are there?

The main categories of cancer are:

Adenoma: usually arise from glandular tissues.
Carcinoma: begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs.
Sarcoma: begins in bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels or other connective or supportive tissue.
Leukaemia: starts in blood-forming tissue such as the bone marrow and causes large numbers of abnormal blood cells to be produced and enter the bloodstream.
Lymphoma and myeloma: begin in the cells of the immune system (white blood cells).
Central nervous system cancers: begin in the tissues of the brain and spinal cord.

How will I know if my rabbit has cancer?

Uterine adenocarcinoma

This is undoubtedly the most common tumour seen in female rabbits and is reported to affect up to 80% of unspayed female rabbits by the age of five.

Some breeds, including Dutch, Dwarf lop, English, Netherland Dwarfs, Tan, French Silver, Havana, and Polish rabbits seem to be more predisposed, but rabbits of all breeds could be affected. There is no evidence to suggest that does who have had litters in the past are any less likely to be affected.

Affected rabbits may show clinical symptoms of reproductive failure such as abortion or still-born young. As the disease progresses the doe may become anorexic, depressed, lethargic and begin to lose weight. Blood in the urine (haematuria) may develop as well as bloody vaginal discharge. Once advanced, secondary tumours in the lungs may develop leading to problems breathing (dyspnoea).

Sometimes this process may take place over a period of 1-2 years as the tumour is normally slow growing, so owners may not notice anything wrong until the disease has reached an advanced stage.

Mammary carcinomas and adenocarcinomas

Again these tumours are common in unspayed adult female rabbits.

The clinical symptoms are similar with benign and malignant mammary tumours. The development of irregular-sized discharging nipples might be indicative of the disease. These tumours are not normally painful, although secondary infection and ulceration can sometimes be seen.

Testicular neoplasia

Although reported in rabbits, testicular neoplasia is a rare clinical finding.

These may involve enlargement of one or both testicle(s). The affected swollen testicles are normally non-painful and firm. Reproductive failure may be seen in breeding bucks.

There is the potential for secondary metastatic spread of these tumours to other organs, especially the lungs, with breathing problems becoming apparent if this is the case.

How is cancer diagnosed?

Symptoms may be very indicative in some cases. Uterine adenocarcinomas are often suspected by your vet palpating a lump in the caudal abdomen. Imaging techniques such as x-rays or ultrasound can then be used to detect the mass in the abdomen. Advanced imaging, such as computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging scans are also diagnostic, although rarely used due to high cost.

Diagnosis of mammary carcinomas and adenocarcionmas can be made by obtaining a small sample of the cells from the mass(es) by fine needle aspiration, and looking at the cells under a microscope. Confirmation of the diagnosis can only be obtained by removing the tumour and sending samples to a specialised laboratory to perform a histopathological examination. Before embarking on treatment of these types of cancer, a full clinical workup should be carried out, including x-rays of the chest, to ensure no spread of the disease has already occurred. Chest x-rays should be repeated 3-6 months after surgery to check the cancer hasn’t spread to other organs.

Can cancer be treated?

If detected in time, most types of cancer can be treated with surgery.

Ovariohysterectomy (spaying) is advised for all female rabbits at an early age to prevent uterine neoplasia from developing. Spaying is also usually the best treatment option in cases where a tumour is already present, as long as secondary tumours have not become established within the lungs. If this is the case, the prognosis is very poor as appropriate chemotherapy has not been reported for this type of tumour in rabbits; under these circumstances the kindest thing for your rabbit is to have them put to sleep.

When mammary carcionmas and adenocarcinomas are involved, a partial or complete mastectomy (surgical removal of all mammary gland tissue) and spaying is the treatment of choice. Benign tumours may not require treatment but are often removed due to the size to which they can grow. If the neoplastic tumours have spread into bone marrow, the lungs or lymph nodes, this carries a very poor prognosis and surgical intervention will not cure the disease.

Castration is the treatment of choice for testicular neoplasia; if there is no spread of the disease into the lungs then this should be curative of the disease. As with other primary tumours, if there is a spread into the lungs then treatment is often futile and euthanasia is in the best interests of the rabbit. To prevent the disease, castration of all non-breeding male rabbits is advised.

What other tumours can rabbits suffer from?

Other types of tumours that have been reported in rabbits include:

Papilloma: benign growths which can have a cauliflower appearance and can sometimes bleed. Papillomas that develop in the mouth are considered non-cancerous.
Basal cell carcinoma: a type of skin cancer which can be benign or malignant and looks like a reddened patch of skin. They are often slow growing and appear over a period of time. Although they can spread locally, they rarely metastasise and spread to other parts of the body.
Osteosarcoma: tumours that affect the bone and are considered rare in rabbits. Clinical symptoms may include lameness and hard swellings on the legs.
Lymphoma: cancer of the lymphatic system.
Tymoma: these tumours are found less frequently in rabbits. The only clinical symptom might be protrusion of the eyes from the globe. These cases are usually complicated because the eye is secondarily involved, but the primary cause might be somewhere else. A thymoma may, in fact, be slowly growing in the chest, compressing the vessels that transport blood to the head resulting in this particular clinical symptom.

The key to eliminating the most common types of cancers seen in rabbits is to get them neutered at a young age, as most cancers seen in rabbits are those affecting the reproductive systems.

Of course, your rabbit may be affected by other types of cancer but treatments are constantly advancing, so always be advised by your vet.

Aggressive rabbits

Posted on July 30, 2018 by vetstream - behaviour-rabbits, rabbits

Rabbits have a reputation for being cute and cuddly, and certainly don’t give an outward impression of being capable of aggression. However, aggressive behaviour towards people can be a common problem amongst domestic rabbits, and has many possible causes, with treatment aimed at improving the trust between an owner and the rabbit.

Understanding aggression

In order to begin to understand why a rabbit may be aggressive you have to look at both wild and domestic rabbits lifestyles and put yourself in the rabbit’s position. Wild rabbits rank towards the bottom of the food chain as they are prey to many predators (including humans). This explains why they are always on their guard for the first sign of danger and can react adversely when threatened.

If a rabbit senses danger it has a choice of 3 options, commonly known as the three Fs. It can either freeze in the hope that the potential danger will go away. If this fails the next option is to take flight and run away from the danger. If this fails and the rabbit is caught, then its last line of defence is to fight. Rabbits in fighting mode are formidable opponents; they will strike with their front feet, often growling and using their very sharp teeth and claws to inflict as much damage as possible in an attempt to escape.

Aggressive behaviour

Although domesticated, the natural behaviour of the rabbit has changed very little from that of its wild relatives. This means that pet rabbits retain the instinct of survival, so when faced with any situation which they perceive to be a danger, they will behave as a wild rabbit would.

Common examples of aggression in pet rabbits include:

Handling problems

Apart from the fact that the some rabbits don’t like to be picked up, if you were a rabbit with huge hands approaching you from above, which to you resembled a bird of prey, how would you feel? Putting this into concept and how a wild rabbit would react when faced with what it believes to be an attack from above, its first option is to freeze, but this wont work, as you will still attempt to pick the rabbit up. It cant always take flight as in a hutch or run where there is limited space and even in a house, there are only so many places to run and hide. Sometimes the rabbit’s only option is to fight for what it believes to be its life.

After a while the rabbit begins to associate approaching hands with being picked up (which it doesn’t like), so may attempt to bite at any opportunity when a hand is presented. If the action of biting stops you from picking the rabbit up, it will learn that whenever it doesn’t want to you do something to it, it just has to bite and you will stop.

Territorial aggression

Rabbits, even after they have been neutered, can be very protective of their territory (hutch, run, pen etc) and their possessions (food bowl, litter tray, toys etc) and any attempt to invade this territory may be met with aggression. In the wild, rabbits have to keep their territory safe from neighbouring groups of rabbits so it is a very natural instinct to protect and defend.

Some pet rabbits that are perhaps feeling that their territory is insecure, may display aggression towards their owners when they try to feed them, clean them out or put their hand in the cage to stroke them. This form of aggression is the often linked with possessions; if the rabbit thinks we are going to take something away from them, they will defend it.

Hormonal aggression

Hormones can play a factor in aggressive rabbits, particularly female rabbits. Such aggression is usually apparent at sexual maturity (between 3-6 months of age depending on breed) and may occur in territorial situations or be linked to sexual behaviour. Neutering will help with any aggression that is motivated by the hormones (such as territorial aggression) and should take place as soon as is medically safe. The benefits may take a couple of months to become fully apparent. Neutering will not help with forms of aggression that are caused by fear.

Pain

Rabbits who are in pain, may display aggression. Any aggression in a rabbit should first be checked out by a vet to determine that there is no medical cause or discomfort responsible for the change in behaviour.

Improving aggressive behaviour in rabbits that don't like to be picked up

Many rabbits are aggressive through fear which is usually linked to a lack of appropriate handling and socialisation at an early age. There are things that can be done to try and lessen the aggression, although you may not be able to totally eliminate it. If the aggression started at puberty and seems to be linked with possession or territory, then neutering may be the first option. If the aggression is linked to handling then you need to adopt a gentle programme to begin building up the trust your rabbit has in you, to show it that you aren’t a threat to it. This can be achieved by the following methods:

Stop attempting to pick the rabbit up. Obviously you still need to feed your rabbit and it still needs exercise from its hutch, cage, etc. but you can get around these problems by having two food bowls. Before taking the empty one away, give the rabbit its food in the other bowl, so it is eating that before you take the empty bowl away. Try to alter the rabbit’s living environment, perhaps by placing their hutch in their run, so they can go in and out as they please, so there is no need to pick them up. If they are a houserabbit, try and coax them in and out of their pen with their favourite treats. Never chase the rabbit and don’t clean out their hutch/cage when they are in it.
Offer the rabbit its favourite treats in an attempt to get it to come to you. Don’t make any sudden movements or attempt to pick the rabbit up at this stage. If the rabbit tries to bite you or wont take the treat, then you may need to spend more time trying not to invade the rabbit’s space. There will be no set timescale as each rabbit is an individual.
Once the rabbit will come to you to take a treat and doesn’t seem nervous of you, try stroking them with your hand or a long-handled soft brush (if they attempt to bite you then they bite the brush and not you. The brush can also be kept still so that they do not learn that aggression works). Gradually build up the areas that are being touched. If your rabbit has a particular area where it doesn’t like to be touched, avoid this area in the early stages.
Once the rabbit is happy and accepting of being brushed you can attempt to replace the brush with your hand.
The final stage is to pick the rabbit up. Only raise the rabbit a couple of inches off the ground, perhaps onto your lap and then offer them their favourite treat. Repeat this exercise several times a day, gradually increasing the height you lift the rabbit up to, until you are able to pick them up and carry them a short distance, say from their hutch to their run.

This whole process may take many months and you may have to stay at any of these stages for weeks or even months until you feel that the rabbit is able to move on to the next step. Sadly there are no quick wonder cures for this behaviour problem.

How to pick up rabbits

Rabbits are ground dwelling animals and are most happy when they have all four feet firmly on the ground. Picking up rabbits should only be done when necessary (to give medication, examine the rabbit, clip claws, put the rabbit in its run/hutch etc), and not just for the sake of it. Adults or older children should pick up rabbits – younger children are often too small to confidentially handle rabbits, especially if they struggle or attempt to bite or kick, which can result in the rabbit being dropped and suffering potentially fatal injuries. Rabbits have very fragile skeletons, with their lumber spine especially prone to dislocation or fracture from incorrect handling or struggling.

The best way to pick up rabbits is to place one hand over the loose skin on the neck (scruff of the neck) and one hand under the rump (bottom) of the rabbit. The rabbit should be lifted from underneath using the hand on the rump to lift the rabbit and the hand on the scruff of the neck to support the rabbit. Once you have lifted the rabbit quickly bring the rabbit into your body for support. Always ensure their hind quarters are supported and if the rabbit begins to struggle put it on the floor or in a safe area as quickly as possible.

Never lift a rabbit using their ears or the scruff of the neck and don’t attempt to wrestle with the rabbit if you lose control. These actions will cause the rabbit to avoid all contact with you next time.

What to do if your rabbit bites

When rabbits bite, it can be very painful, and can be hard to remember that they bite usually out of fear, rather than nastiness. It is also wise to ensure that your own tetanus protection is up-to-date. However, whatever you do, never punish the rabbit by shouting or smacking it, as this will only make a fearful rabbit fear you even more and just compound the aggression problems.

Realistic aims

You have to be realistic with the aims you set. It is hard to turn an aggressive rabbit into a cuddly, docile bunny, but you can often improve the situation, with months of hard work and dedication so be prepared to be patient and committed. There are lots of options for aggressive rabbits; from having them neutered, to adopting a socialising programme; perhaps adapting their living quarters to give them more space and stimulation and getting them another rabbit for company.

What if things don't improve?

Undoubtedly there are rabbits that don’t respond to treatment and these rabbits pose a huge problem. The best option is to get them a bunny friend and allow them to literally live free range in a secure and safe enclosure in the garden, with minimal human contact, but under many circumstances this may not be possible. You can ask your vet for a referral to a qualified behaviourist familiar with rabbit behaviour to see if they are able to suggest any treatment aimed specifically at your rabbit.

Rehoming centres are always full to capacity with rabbits looking for new homes and understandably there aren’t many people who want to take on an aggressive rabbit, so getting a rescue centre to take the rabbit may be impossible. Rabbits are more than capable of inflicting very nasty injuries on both people and other animals and if you have tried everything then sadly the only option may be to have the rabbit put to sleep. However, this option should never be taken lightly and should only be carried out after immense thought and discussion with your vet and a behaviourist.

Further information

For behaviour advice, contact the Association of Pet Behaviour Counsellors at PO Box 46, Worcester, WR8 9YS, UK. Tel: 01386 751151Website: www.apbc.org.uk .

Further reading

Magnus E (2002) How to Have a Relaxed Rabbit. The Essential Handbook for Rabbit Owners. Ed: Appleby D. The Pet Behaviour Centre. ASIN: B009C5HDYK.
McBride A (2000)Why Does My Rabbit…? Souvenir Press. ISBN: 978-0285635500.

Samples and tests – how they help your vet

Posted on June 26, 2018 by vetstream - rabbits, veterinary-procedures-rabbits

Laboratory tests are used by vets to help them diagnose disease in animals that are ill. Increasingly, they are also used as part of a routine health check to detect hidden disease before the development of obvious symptoms. This allows your rabbit to be treated earlier and more effectively. Tests may be used to show whether a rabbit is carrying infections that could pose a threat to other rabbits it comes into contact with.

Who carries out the test?

Many veterinary practices have their own small laboratory where a limited range of tests can be carried out. Results are obtained quickly which allows rapid decisions on treatment. Often a quick test is carried out in the practice and a sample is then sent to the commercial laboratory to check that the results tally.

If a broader range of tests is required, samples will be sent to a commercial laboratory which will usually send results of routine tests back to your vet by fax, telephone or e-mail within 24 hours (although some tests may take 10 days or longer to complete). Commercial laboratories are able to advise your vet on how to interpret difficult test results.

Occasionally, especially if samples are delayed in the post, they may deteriorate and your vet may need to repeat the test.

What is being tested and why?

There are a whole battery of tests which can be done on different types of samples, although not all are used to investigate every disease. Some samples are more easy to obtain than others and the effects that testing has on your rabbit will vary.

Blood tests

It is possible to tell a great deal about your rabbit’s health or disease from the concentration of different chemicals in the blood. The proportion of different types of blood cells and the presence of proteins called antibodies (which are produced as part of the body’s defence against disease), may tell your vet how well your pet is fighting the disease.

Samples are usually taken from a vein in the ear using a hypodermic needle and syringe. A patch of fur over the vein is shaved and the skin disinfected with surgical alcohol to clean the skin and allow your vet to see the vein more easily. A few millilitres (about a teaspoon) of blood are put into special containers to prevent it clotting.

Blood sampling is not painful although some rabbits don’t like being held whilst the sample is taken. Some bruising may occur if your rabbit has delicate skin or struggles when the sample is being taken. The puncture hole will heal quickly.

Urine tests

These are carried out to check for diseases such as diabetes or cystitis. Urine can be checked to see if it contains proteins, sugar or signs of infection.

Urine samples can be collected by catching a few drops of urine in a thoroughly cleaned container as the cat empties its bladder. However, this is sometimes difficult and it may be easier to take urine from the bottom of a clean litter tray. The sample should be kept in a sealed bottle inside a refrigerator and tested as soon as possible.

When it is not possible to wait for a naturally produced urine sample your vet may collect one using a catheter (a special tube) passed directly into the bladder through the urethra, or using a needle inserted into the bladder through the skin over the belly. It may be necessary for your vet to sedate your cat to collect a sample in this way, but these techniques are no more complicated or dangerous than taking a blood sample.

Faeces (droppings)

Small samples of faeces often help to identify diseases of the digestive system. The sample may be tested to see if any unusual bacteria are growing that indicate an infection in the intestines. Further tests may be carried out to see if your cat is unable to digest certain foods or if its faeces contain eggs from parasitic worms.

Swabs

A cat’s eyes, ears and nose or skin can often become infected with disease-causing bacteria,viruses or fungi. Swabs are taken by gently rubbing the affected area with a small piece of cotton wool. The swab is then either transferred onto a glass slide for examination under a microscope or cultured and tested to see if bacteria can be grown. The results of a culture test may take a few weeks or longer, (in the case of some slow growing bugs).

Skin scrapings

Cats with skin disease will be tested to see if they are infected with parasitic mites. The skin is scraped gently with the edge of a scalpel blade until bleeding occurs. This may cause minor discomfort to some cats although others tolerate it fairly well. There are usually only small numbers of mites and a large number of scrapings may have to be taken from several areas before finding them. The skin sample is transferred onto a glass slide and examined under a microsope.

Tissue biopsies

If a cat has a growth on its body it is normal to take a tissue biopsy. This involves removing a small part of the lump which is then examined under a microscope to see what sort of cells it contains. Cell samples may also be collected by putting a needle into the lump and sucking out some cells.

Fluid samples may be taken from the airways via a tube placed in the throat, or the digestive system via an endoscope passed into the stomach. In this way your vet can obtain more information without performing a full operation on your cat.

How many tests are needed to diagnose a disease?

With many diseases it is not possible for your vet to come up with an instant diagnosis. Your animal may have to undergo a number of tests so that the vet can rule out possible causes of the illness. While some diseases can be confirmed using a single test, others will need a large number (profile) or a sequence of tests on one or more tissues or body fluids. There are occasions when repeat tests may be needed to be taken over a period of time, eg looking for changes in antibody levels in the blood over several weeks.

Your vet may need to perform diagnostic tests on your cat, or on samples from your cat, to help provide the best possible care for your pet. If you are unsure what a test involves or why your vet needs to do it, please ask for a more detailed explanation.

Encephalitozoon cuniculi

Posted on June 26, 2018 by vetstream - infectious-diseases-rabbits, rabbits

Encephalitozoon cuniculi was virtually unrecognised as a cause of disease in pet rabbits until a few years ago. Nowadays it is much more widely diagnosed amongst pet rabbits, with owners of affected rabbits wanting to learn as much as possible in order to give their rabbits the best care possible. However, the disease isn’t a straightforward one, and there is still a lot that we don’t understand about it, so it does take some explaining in order to understand what it is, what it does and how it is currently treated.

What is Encephalitozoon cuniculi?

Encephalitozoon cuniculi (E. cuniculi) is a protozoal parasite. The parasite primarily affects rabbits, but cases have been reported in sheep, goats, dogs, cats, monkeys, guinea pigs, foxes, pigs and humans. It is a recognised zoonosis (can be transmitted to humans), but the zoonotic risk seems to be minimal to healthy individuals observing basic hygiene and to date there have been no reported cases of direct transmission from a rabbit to a human. However, those individuals who are immunosuppressed should implement strict hygiene and if possible avoid animals suspected or confirmed of being infected with E. cuniculi and undoubtedly seek medical advice from their doctor.

How is E. cuniculi transmitted?

Spores are shed in infected animals urine and transmission is usually by ingestion of contaminated food or water, or less commonly by inhalation of spores. Transmission from mother to young (transplacental) also occurs so that offspring are born infected.

What symptoms and disease processes does it cause in rabbits?

One study* has shown that approximately 52% of healthy rabbits in the UK carry the parasite, but many never show any clinical signs. We still dont understand why some infected rabbits develop the disease and others dont, but it is most likely that it is related to their immune function.

If the rabbit is infected with E. cuniculi and showing clinical signs then it may exhibit any, some or all of the following:

Hindlimb paresis (weakness of the hindlimbs)
Torticollis (head tilt)
Paralysis
Urinary incontinence and/or scalding
Tremors
Cataracts and lens-induced uveitis
Collapse
Renal failure
Death

These clinical signs are caused by the body’s inflammatory reaction to rupture infected cells, mainly in the nervous system and kidney. However, many of these symptoms can be associated with other disease processes, so a diagnosis is rarely made on clinical symptoms alone.

* Keeble E J & Shaw D J (2006) Seroprevalence of antibodies to Encephalitozoon cuniculi in domestic rabbits in the United Kingdom. Vet Rec 158(16), 539-544 www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16632526.

How is E. cuniculi diagnosed?

If the rabbit is showing clinical signs that may be indicative of an E. cuniculi infection, then your vet will probably recommend a blood test.

Nowadays the test most commonly used is the ELISA test that measures serum antibody levels. This detects whether the rabbit has been exposed to the parasite.

A blood sample will be taken from your rabbit and sent away to a laboratory. A negative result is generally conclusive and can rule out E. cuniculi as the problem, unless the sample is taken very early on in infection or the immune system is so weak that the rabbit doesn’t produce antibodies. A positive result isn’t always that straightforward. A high antibody titre, together with clinical signs is usually enough for most vets to commence the rabbit on treatment for E. cuniculi, but a moderate or low antibody titre may not be enough for the vet to be sure that E. cuniculi is the problem since so many rabbits carry the parasite without symptoms (asymptomatically).

In these cases diagnosis is usually made by taking a further blood sample a few weeks later and if the titre is higher than the first (a rising titre) this would indicate an active infection and would usually lead to a diagnosis of E. cuniculi as the problem.

Another available test is the PCR test, which detects the parasite itself, usually in a urine sample. A positive result means that the rabbit is shedding the parasite and is thus infected, but a negative may mean either that the rabbit is not infected, or that it is infected but just not shedding spores at that time.

What is the treatment for E. cuniculi?

Treatment aims to reduce inflammation and prevent formation of spores. If a diagnosis is made or clinical symptoms indicate E. cuniculi to be the cause of disease then a 28-day course of oral fenbendazole, e.g. Panacur®, at 20 mg/kg once a day is the general treatment of choice, plus anti-inflammatory drugs such as corticosteroids.

However, many new treatments are being trialled and looked into, so your vet may decide to treat with a different drug or combination of drugs.

If a secondary bacterial infection is also present, then the treatment regime will probably also include antibiotics.

Does my rabbit need routine treatment?

This is where people differ in their opinions. Routinely (prophylatically) treating against E. cuniculi is recommended by some vets but deemed pointless by others!

Some vets feel that treating your rabbit 2-4 times a year can help reduce the incidence of E. cuniculi developing to a point where clinical signs are seen. However, other vets feel that preventive treatment is pointless because as soon as the course of treatment is finished the rabbit is no more protected than it would have been if it hadn’t been treated. This is an area where more research is needed.

If you chose to use preventive treatment then there are products that are licensed for this purpose. It is usually a 9-day oral course given once daily at the same dose as what would be used to treat an infected rabbit (20 mg/kg) and can be done every 3-6 months.

Please contact your vet who will be happy to advise you.

Does treatment cure the problem?

We don’t really know. One study show that a 28 day course of fenbendazole does eliminate the parasite, but this may not be the case with all rabbits and some people feel that once a rabbit is infected with E. cuniculi it will be a life-long carrier. The disease process will generally take one of the following routes:

Treatment improves the clinical signs

If this is the case then after 28 days the treatment is usually stopped. At this point if the rabbit deteriorates again then treatment can be recommenced. It isn’t known for sure what triggers a flare-up of the disease but stress is thought to play a part or if the rabbits immune system is weakened by another disease and can no longer keep the parasite at bay. Also don’t forget that a rabbit can become re-infected if it is exposed again to spores from the environment.

Some rabbits need lifelong medications, whereas others need it sporadically to control clinical signs when they manifest themselves. Others only need a one off treatment course and never seem to develop clinical signs again. However it should be stated that treatment might not be sufficient for the rabbit to make a full recovery and some level of clinical signs often continue.

Treatment does not improve the clinical signs

Generally if treatment is going to work then some improvement in clinical signs is seen in the first week or so, with a gradual improvement.

For those rabbits that fail to improve then euthanasia is the only humane option if the clinical signs are debilitating and the rabbit has no quality of life.

How can I stop my rabbit getting E. cuniculi?

Firstly you need to be 100% sure that the rabbit isnt already carrying the parasite. Ask your vet if they would be willing to blood test your rabbit.

If the result comes back as negative, then the best form of defence is to stop your rabbit coming into contact with any other rabbits, be this domestic or wild. As previously mentioned spores from the parasite are primarily passed on in the urine of infected rabbits so removing this route of transmission is your rabbits best form of defence. Good hygiene is vital as spores can easily be killed by routine disinfectants.

Can I have my rabbit vaccinated against E. cuniculi?

E. cuniculi is a parasite and not a virus, therefore there is no vaccine against E. cuniculi.

What is the outlook for rabbits with E. cuniculi?

This depends upon the rabbit’s response to treatment, and the frequency and severity of any flare-ups.

Generally speaking, a lot of rabbits who develop problems due to E. cuniculi can go on to do well and lead full lives, but treatment needs to be prompt, otherwise the parasite will cause more damage and clinical signs will be more severe.

Quality of life

It is important to keep in your mind your rabbits quality of life when dealing with E. cuniculi. For example if your rabbit has a head tilt but is otherwise eating, drinking and managing to get around, then the rabbit is probably perfectly happy. Rabbits don’t worry about what they look like; this is more of a concern to the owner.

Whereas a rabbit that is continually scalded with urine, miserable, rolling/falling over or unable to move due to hind limb weakness or paralysis is not a happy rabbit and you should think seriously about if your rabbit has an acceptable quality of life.

Arthritis

Posted on June 26, 2018 by vetstream - miscellaneous health problems, rabbits

Arthritis is a well-known, documented condition affecting humans, cats and dogs. R rabbits can often be affected too, especially as they get older, and sometimes this can go un-noticed.

What is arthritis?

What causes arthritis?

Other causes include bacterial infections causing septic arthritis. This can be caused by penetrating injuries where bacteria are introduced to the joint capsule leading to inflammation. This type of arthritis can occur at any age and in any breed of rabbit. If a rabbit contracts an infection, as a results of trauma, dental disease or upper respiratory tract infection, there might be an increased risk of bacteria migrating to the joint, causing septic arthritis.

Rheumatoid arthritisis another type of arthritis caused by an over-reaction of the immune system; the immune system mistakes the body’s own protein for bacteria and attacks it leading to inflammation within the joints. Rheumatoid arthritis does not seem to occur spontaneously in domestic rabbits.

What symptoms may my rabbit show?

How is arthritis diagnosed?

Your vet will give your rabbit a full clinical examination. Radiographs will then confirm or rule out the presence of arthritis. On x-ray, arthritis joints will show a haze or fuzziness around the joint, which is diagnostic of the condition. Other more sophisticated diagnostic imaging techniques, including ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and arthroscopy, can also be used for a more accurate diagnosis. All these techniques can prove very useful to visualize the degree of bone and joint destruction.

Your rabbit will probably require sedation or general anaesthesia in order to achieve good enough images to be diagnostic.

Your vet may also do a blood test, urine test, or take a sample of joint fluid (joint aspirate) to test in the lab to rule out any underlying problems.

Can my rabbit be treated?

Septic arthritis can be resolved if it caught and treated early enough.

Acupuncture has also been reported to help in some cases by reducing the amount of pain medication used, and providing relief for many patients.

What measures can I take to help my rabbit?

Ensure that you do not allow your rabbit to become overweight, and encourage them to exercise regularly to build up muscle mass.

If you think your rabbit may be developing arthritis (symptoms can be attributed to other conditions), then take your rabbit to see your vet as soon as possible.

Keep your rabbit on a soft absorbent bedding to prevent soiling and further complications.

Some rabbits may not be able to reach their caecothrophes, so it is a good idea to collect them and place them in, or near to, their food area as most rabbits will eat them on their own.

Cerebrospinal nematodiasis

Posted on June 26, 2018 by vetstream - gastrointestinal conditions, rabbits

How is cerebrospinal nematodiasis contracted?

Cerebrospinal nematodiasis occurs when rabbit ingest material, e.g. grass, that is contaminated with faeces containing the eggs from Toxacara canis (canine roundworm) or Baylisascaris spp eggs.

What are the signs of cerebrospinal nematodiasis?

Clinical signs may include:

behavioural changes
torticollis (head tilt)
circling
seizures
vertical nystagmus (eye flicking/twitching)
swaying
falling over
paralysis
ataxia (loss of co-ordination).

There seems to be no evidence that sex, breed or age of the rabbit makes it more predisposed to the effects of the parasite.

How is it diagnosed?

Can it be treated?

Anti-parasitic medications, such as albendazole or fenbendazole, together with anti-inflammatory medications, to help inflammation is the usual treatment of choice.

What else should I know?

Cancer in your rabbit

Posted on June 26, 2018 by vetstream - caring for your rabbit, rabbits

What is cancer?

Symptoms related to cancer can be quite variable depending on where the cancer is located, if and where it has spread, and how big it is.

What types of cancer are there?

The main categories of cancer are:

Adenoma: usually arise from glandular tissues.
Carcinoma: begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs.
Sarcoma: begins in bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels or other connective or supportive tissue.
Leukaemia: starts in blood-forming tissue such as the bone marrow and causes large numbers of abnormal blood cells to be produced and enter the bloodstream.
Lymphoma and myeloma: begin in the cells of the immune system (white blood cells).
Central nervous system cancers: begin in the tissues of the brain and spinal cord.

How will I know if my rabbit has cancer?

Uterine adenocarcinoma

This is undoubtedly the most common tumour seen in female rabbits and is reported to affect up to 80% of unspayed female rabbits by the age of five.

Sometimes this process may take place over a period of 1-2 years as the tumour is normally slow growing, so owners may not notice anything wrong until the disease has reached an advanced stage.

Mammary carcinomas and adenocarcinomas

Again these tumours are common in unspayed adult female rabbits.

Testicular neoplasia

Although reported in rabbits, testicular neoplasia is a rare clinical finding.

These may involve enlargement of one or both testicle(s). The affected swollen testicles are normally non-painful and firm. Reproductive failure may be seen in breeding bucks.

There is the potential for secondary metastatic spread of these tumours to other organs, especially the lungs, with breathing problems becoming apparent if this is the case.

How is cancer diagnosed?

Can cancer be treated?

If detected in time, most types of cancer can be treated with surgery.

What other tumours can rabbits suffer from?

Other types of tumours that have been reported in rabbits include:

Papilloma: benign growths which can have a cauliflower appearance and can sometimes bleed. Papillomas that develop in the mouth are considered non-cancerous.
Basal cell carcinoma: a type of skin cancer which can be benign or malignant and looks like a reddened patch of skin. They are often slow growing and appear over a period of time. Although they can spread locally, they rarely metastasise and spread to other parts of the body.
Osteosarcoma: tumours that affect the bone and are considered rare in rabbits. Clinical symptoms may include lameness and hard swellings on the legs.
Lymphoma: cancer of the lymphatic system.
Tymoma: these tumours are found less frequently in rabbits. The only clinical symptom might be protrusion of the eyes from the globe. These cases are usually complicated because the eye is secondarily involved, but the primary cause might be somewhere else. A thymoma may, in fact, be slowly growing in the chest, compressing the vessels that transport blood to the head resulting in this particular clinical symptom.

The key to eliminating the most common types of cancers seen in rabbits is to get them neutered at a young age, as most cancers seen in rabbits are those affecting the reproductive systems.

Of course, your rabbit may be affected by other types of cancer but treatments are constantly advancing, so always be advised by your vet.